Does Homework Increase Student Achievement? Essay

Introduction Homework is a very complex topic and a source of great discussion. Support for homework has ebbed and flowed over the last century. Some have argued that the burden of homework causes significant family stress–including parent-child conflict, reduced family leisure time, and overly tired children. (Kralovec & Buell, 2000). Others have argued that homework is a necessary part of the American educational experience. After the Russians launched Sputnik in 1957, Americans were worried about keeping up educationally with other nations and began to demand more homework for the children (Gill & Schlossman, 2000). Due to these changing views on homework, research is more important than ever to determine (if possible) the effects of homework on student achievement. Definitions Homework can be defined as any task assigned by schoolteachers intended for students to carry out during non-school hours (Cooper, 1989). The scope of the word homework can include many different types of things. Variations in  homework can be classified according to its (a) amount, (b) skill area, (c) purpose, (d) degree of choice for the student, (e) completion deadline, (f) degree of individualization, and (g) social context. Variations in the amount of homework can appear as differences in both the frequency and length of individual assignments. Assignments can range over all the skill areas taught in school. (p. 1, Cooper, Robinson, and Patall, 2006). Primary Purposes/Benefits of Homework Assignments Homework can be assigned to fulfill many purposes. Those purposes are either instructional or non-instructional. (Epstein, 1988; Epstein and Van Voohis, 2001). Practicing or reviewing material from class is the most common instructional purpose. Other purposes include the introduction of new material and the application of learned skills to new situations. Examples of non-instructional purposes are to fulfill district homework policies, open and grown parent-teacher lines of communication, as well as improved parent-child communication regarding school. (Cooper et al., 2006) Students, teachers and parents experience these benefits of the homework assignments. Additional Benefits of Homework While the primary reason for assigning homework is to aid and reinforce instruction, there is growing evidence that the practice of homework can have additional benefits including managing distraction, self-efficacy, and perceived responsibility for learning (Bembenutty, 2009). While these self-regulation tasks, such as time management, setting goals, effort and persistence in completing difficult tasks, and self-monitoring one’s performance, are important to academic success, they are also vitally important life skills, especially for successful professional writers, athletes, artists, and scientists. (Ramdass and Zimmerman, 2011). Other benefits include long-term academic benefits such as better study skills, as well as nonacademic benefits such as greater self -direction and more independent problem-solving. In addition, parents tend to have a great appreciation of and involvement in schooling (Protheroe, 2009). Relationship between Homework and Achievement There are varied findings in the research for the relationship between  homework and achievement. Some research finds a positive relationship between homework and achievement. Zhu and Leung (2012) studied this relationship by introducing quality of homework as a factor. They focused on three aspects: frequency and amount of homework; types of homework; and usage modes of homework. Overall, Zhu & Leung found that the three aspects of homework studied did have a positive influence on assessment results. Tanis and Sullivan-Bustein (1998) studied homework completion and its effect on weekly quiz performance. This research did show improved test performance as homework completion increased. This study was somewhat flawed, however, because the participants were not chosen randomly. The students were chosen due to their history of achievement (or lack thereof) and homework issues. Nonetheless, this research did positively affect the students studied. Omlin-Ruback (1998) conducted a study focusing on increasing homework completion of middle school students through the use of interventions. This study found that the students who were participating in the homework interventions on a daily basis had better grades than those who did not. Thus, students who were completing more homework had improved achievement. While these three studies did find a positive relationship, other research finds no relationship. Trautwein, Schnyder, Niggli, Neumann, and Ludkte (2009) reviewed a great deal of prior research on the relationship between homework and achievement and decided that a more complex research design was required to study this relationship. The results of their study depended on the variables under focus. The homework-achievement association was positive, negative or not statistically significant depending on which variables were being studied. Opponents point out that homework can also have negative effects on achievement and school in general. It can lead to boredom with schoolwork, since all activities remain interesting only for finite periods of time. Homework can deny children access to leisure activities that also teach important life skills. Parents can get too involved in homework. They can  pressure children and can confuse them by using instructional techniques that are different from those used by the teacher (p.1, Cooper, 2008). Factors other than Homework that Affect Achievement The relationship between homework and student achievement is complex. One significant factor other than homework affecting achievement includes home life. Some students do not have the tools or support at home to complete homework. (Protheroe, 2009). In addition, test anxiety and stress levels can negatively affect student achievement even if homework completion is complete and thorough. (Talib and Sansgiry, 2011). Thus, studying a single relationship between homework and student achievement cannot explain the effects, or lack thereof, of homework. Conclusions There are varied finding in the research concerning the relationship between homework and student achievement. While there is a great deal of research on the topic of the value of homework in student achievement, it turns out that this relationship is very complex. There are many factors involved, many of which are out of the control of the school or teacher. In addition, there are gaps in the research regarding the different types of homework and the quality of homework. This complex relationship needs to be further defined and refined. Further research needs to be done using new statistical techniques that can successfully handle the number of variables in this relationship. References Bembenutty, H. (2009). Feeling-of-knowing judgment and self-regulation of learning. Education, 129(4), 589-598. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/61800994?accountid=12924 Bempechat, J., Li, J., Neier, S. M., Gillis, C. A., & Holloway, S. D. (2011). The homework experience: Perceptions of low-income youth. Journal of Advanced Academics, 22(2), 250-278. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/864940664?accountid=12924 Cooper, H. (2008). A brief history of homework in the united states. research brief. ().National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. 1906 Association Drive, Reston, VA 20191-1502. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/61858829?accountid=12924 Cooper, H., Robinson, J. C., & Patall, E. A. (2006). Does homework improve academic achievement A synthesis of research, 1987-2003. Review of Educational Research, 76(1), 1-62. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/62008296?accountid=12924 Cooper, H. (1989). Synthesis of research on homework. Educational Leadership, 47(3), 85-91. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/63060036?accountid=12924 Dettmers, S., Trautwein, U., Ludtke, O., Kunter, M., & Baumert, J. (2010). Homework works if homework quality is high: Using multilevel modeling to predict the development of achievement in mathematics. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102(2), 467-482. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/742870744?accountid=12924 Epstein, J. L. (1983). Homework practices, achievements, and behaviors of elementary school students. (). Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/63342872?accountid=12924 Epstein , J. L. (2001). School, family, and community partnerships: Preparing educators and improving schools Westview Press, 5500 Central Avenue, Boulder, CO 80301 ($35). Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/62348785?accountid=12924 Gill, B., & Schlossman, S. (2000). The lost cause of homework reform. American Journal of Education, 109(1), 27-62. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/62249711?accountid=12924 Hong, E., Wan, M., & Peng, Y. (2011). Discrepancies between students’ and teachers’ perceptions of homework. Journal of Advanced Academics, 22(2), 280-308. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/864939429?accountid=12924 Kralovec, E., & Buell, J. (2000). The end of homework: How homework disrupts families, overburdens children, and limits learning Beacon Press, 25 Beacon Street, Boston, MA 02108-2892; Tel: 617-742-2110; Fax: 617-742-2290; Web site: http://www.beacon.org ($18). Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/62323216?a ccountid=12924 Protheroe, N. (2009). Good homework policy. Principal, 89(1), 42-45. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/61819932?accountid=12924 Omlin-Ruback, H.A study of mathematics homework. , 98. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1011399791?accountid=12924. (1011399791; ED531060). Ramdass, D., & Zimmerman, B. J. (2011). Developing self-regulation skills: The important role of homework. Journal of Advanced Academics, 22(2), 194-218. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/864939542?accountid=12924 Talib, N., & Sansgiry, S. S. (2011). Factors affecting academic performance of university students in Pakistan. Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business, 3(3), 589-600. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/926273717?accountid=12924 Tanis, B., & Sullivan-Bustein, K. (1998). Teacher-selected strategies for improving homework completion. Remedial and Special Education, 19(5), 263. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/236286267?accountid=12924 Trautwein, U., & Ludtke, O. (2009). Predicting homework motivation and homework effort in six school subjects: The role of person and family characteristics, classroom factors, and school track. Learning and Instruction, 19(3), 243-258. Retrieved http://search.proquest.com/docview/61902599?accountid=12924 Trautwein, U., Schnyder, I., Niggli, A., Neumann, M., & Ludtke, O. (2009). Chameleon effects in homework research: The homework-achievement association depends on the measures used and the level of analysis chosen. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 34(1), 77-88. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/61988315?accountid=12924 Zhu, Y., & Leung, F. K. S. (2012). Homework and mathematics achievement in Hong Kong: Evidence from the TIMSS 2003. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 10(4), 907-925. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1037906879?accountid=12924

Code of Ethics Essay

The NewYork-Presbyterian Healthcare System is built up of a number of hospitals, specialty facilities, and continues care facilities in New York, New Jersey, and Connecticut. According to NewYork-Presbyterian (2014), most System members are academic affiliates of either Weill Cornell Medical College or Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons. NewYork-Presbyterian understands the challenges of today’s medicine and makes it their mission to improve their patients’ care by educating the patients researching in their own community. Their belief is that through awareness they may be able to teach the patients the things they need to know to then take responsibility for their own health. Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons and Weill Cornell Medical College help the NewYork-Presbyterian to improve their knowledge by research and academic capabilities. The NewYork-Presbyterian Healthcare System is always looking for every way possible to improve patient care and give all patients the best possible treatment in their facilities. The organization’s mission statement is â€Å"NewYork-Presbyterian Healthcare System is dedicated to improving patient care, medical education and research throughout this region of the United States.† (nypsystem, 2014) Therefore this gives them three goals. The three goals are promoting patient care, promoting medical education, and to research medical aspects in order to have improvement for society. These three goals are tied to ethical principles because they are three categories, which will show advancement for the entire healthcare community. An example is improving patient care. This is straightforward because if NewYork-Presbyterian Healthcare System is able to improve the patient care that will clearly be and advancement for society and healthcare system as a whole. This is because helping out patients is a large part of the healthcare system. Medical education is very important principle ethically. This is because education makes an entire society more prepared for the future. By encouraging medical education it prepares doctors,  nurses, or anyone in the healthcare industry to perform the best they possible can perform. Lastly, research will fundamentally make for a better society because this would lead to advancement in the medical industry, ultimately ethically the correct thing to do. This organization values giving the best quality healthcare to different healthcare facilities in the North East region and they value being able to spread knowledge in order to better the medical community. This is a very important ethical value towards them. This is because it will not only better the current generation, but the next generation will have all the tools in order to better educate the generation after that. Another value that is important to NewYork-Presbyterian Healthcare System is simply improving the healthcare for anyone in need in this area. This is ethically important because they feel everyone should have the best opportunity to get the best treatment possible. They feel with the tactics that are used they are ethically doing the right thing because of improvement and accesses to healthcare that is being provided. An organizations culture includes experience, philosophy and expectations; very similar to a mission and vision statement. (Thomas Garrett, 2010) An organization’s culture can be presented as strength, muscle and a strong point. The significant importance in how the unity of an organization is demonstrated is closely related to the organization’s culture. Most importantly a company’s culture is derived from visions and policies of the company. Ethical thinking and ethical decision making are inherently a product of making all decisions with the understanding of how it impacts other employee actions and the product produced. There is a direct correlation between culture and ethics. Cultures are based on beliefs, customs and attitude. An individual’s culture and values are established early in life. For example, some cultures allow the behaviors of being stubborn and/or or structured. The mission statement of an organization may lean more toward adaptable, flexible and compliance. If an employee’s personal values and egos interfere with the flow of an organization it can change the overall complexion of making ethical decisions. (Thomas Garrett, 2010) Organizational culture and ethical decision making are both intricate components in running a seamless organization. Employees have their own  cultures and values and employees must make this transition in order to accept the directives of their organization. Ethical thinking means having an awareness of how it impacts individuals and the organization. Ethical decision making begins with the premise of choice and balance. Choice and balance allows individuals to involve individual accountability when making decisions. Working in a team helps with making ethical decisions because the closer the team gets individuality is lost. Most importantly ethics and values impact our social environment which leads to and organizations marketing and success. Decision making involves defining and clarifying the issues. Gathering the information and informally brainstorming becomes a component of making the decision. The code of ethics in any sort of business or organization is arguably the most important key to success. It gives the organization stability and allows the all process to run smoothly. [A code of ethics guides all managerial decisions, creating a common framework upon which all decisions are founded. This can help to create a cohesive understanding of the boundaries within an organization and the standards set for interacting with external stakeholders. A formal, well-communicated code of ethics can also help to protect a company’s reputation and legal standing in the event of a breach of ethics by an individual employee.] (Small Business – Chron.com, 2014) The question is, is it important for an organization’s ethical values to support your own ethical values? From these standards I believe that it is important for the ethical values to be similar, but every organization is going to have a different idea of what is important when it comes to their code of ethics. I feel that it can be beneficial to have more than one viewpoint on ethical values because it can allow a broad spectrum to go off of. It can be compared to the middle section of a problem solving equation. There will be the original solution that seems to be better than the rest, but then there are other solutions that need to be looked at. Having the multiple solutions allows variation and compromise. While the original code of ethics may be working just fine for all involved, but there could be a few tweaks that can be found by comparing and contrasting with another set of ethical values. It wouldn’t be known how well different aspects could work in your own ethical code without testing the waters. The worse that can happen from testing it out would be the realization th at your original ethical values are as good as it gets. NewYork-Presbyterian Healthcare System was founded to improve the way healthcare is being delivered to the communities. Positive change is continuous and a major part in our quest to provide the best possible treatment for our patients and implement modern medicine in the New York region of the United States. The social responsibility to the community as a healthcare system leader is to develop organization operations that will foster patient well-being and benefits. The culture of the organization is top quality, all decisions and actions stem from our organization morals and professional principles that ensure integrity and fairness in caretaking. These principles empower our planning process and give support to health regulations and laws. The ethical behavior at our facilities is an example of our dedication to public health and safety. Every staff member is required to be aware of guidelines that govern the healthcare industry. Patients can expect treatment to include confidentiality, respect, safety and professionalism. An extension of our responsibilities is making education and knowledge sharing one of our best practices. N.Y. Presbyterian Health Care System takes initiative on improving our knowledge base by drawing upon the research of two medical schools, Weill and Cornell Medical College and Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons. The social responsibilities to local communities are what shape our planning process to improve every aspect of healthcare. The outcomes are measured against core issues; improving qualities, reducing readmissions, finances, clinical and administration functions, technology, and medical research. The System conducts system quality reviews to distinguish ourselves from other healthcare institutions recognized as high performers. NewYork-Presbyterian produces monthly newsletters and utilizes the world wide web as communication tools to provide the latest information regarding our healthcare system. This allows the community access to the process, initiatives and performance. Effective decisions to positively impact lives has recognized NewYork-Presbyterian as â€Å"One of the most comprehensive health care institutions in the world, the hospital is committed to excellence in patient care, research, education and community service. NewYork-Presbyterian is the #1 hospital in the New York metropolitan area and is consistently ranked among the best academic medical institutions in the nation, according to U.S. News & World Report.† (â€Å"New York-Presbyterian  Hospital Recognized For Innovative Patient Bedside Tablet†, 2014). The NewYork-Presbyterian Healthcare System is recognized quite a bit in the medical world, mainly because of the stance it has taken in regards to their patients. This particular healthcare system feels that it owes the patients the best care possible and it owes them the ability to be as informed as they can be about their own health. The facilities included in the system feel an ethical pull towards all of their patients, no matter what their own individual beliefs are. They strive to understand and accept each and every one of their patients, no matter how different they are. The community that surrounds the facilities within NewYork-Presbyterian knows that we are socially responsible to them by giving them the knowledge they deserve, not only about our healthcare system but about health and medicine as a whole. The NewYork Healthcare System wants its patients and their community to be aware to their own health and how the medical world around them can change their lives for the b etter. References: NewYork-Presbyterian. (2014). About Us. Retrieved from www.nypsystem.org/about.html. NewYork-Presbyterian Hospital Recognized for Innovative Patient Bedside Tablet. (2014). Retrieved from http://www.nyp.org/news/hospital/2014-infoweek-elite100.html. Small Business – Chron.com,. (2014). Importance of Creating a Code of Ethics for a Business. Retrieved 24 May 2014, from http://smallbusiness.chron.com/importance-creating-code-ethics-business-3094.html The NewYork-Presbyterian Healthcare System. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.nypsystem.org/press.html. Thomas M. Garrett, H.W. (2010). Health Care Ethics: Principles and Problems. Prentice Hall.

Architecture as a Means of Upliftment in South Africa

Architecture as a Means of Fulfillment in South Africa, post-apartheid Introduction The end of Apartheid allowed for â€Å"new ways of describing public institutions† according Togo Nero, in an interview for the Small Scale, Big Change exhibition. And as a result, architecture can be seen as a means of cultural fulfillment in post- apartheid South Africa. So the question is, how does architecture affect social change and identity In this country? This a two-fold question.This essay will look to address this question, In an analysis and comparison of Joy Onerous Red Location Museum In Port Elizabeth, and the Alexandra Heritage Centre in Johannesburg. We will start with a brief history of apartheid, and the sites, to put the buildings into context. Followed by a look at the purposes and concepts of the afore mentioned buildings. From there, we will address the structure and materials and go into an analysis and comparison of the buildings, ending off with the buildings in the pr esent day.History South Africans entire history is plagued with issues and tensions over ethnicity. This is evident all the way back to the early 1 sass when the Dutch and English used the Cape as their stopover point, and began to colonies, forcing the native people (such as the San and Koki) from their homes, and claimed the land for themselves. Battling for land and ownership between the Dutch and the English went on for many, many years, resulting In events such as the Boer War. In 1910, South Africa became a member of the British Commonwealth, with both parties sharing power.By the asses, the Nationalist Party grew in strength resulting in them finally coming into power, and the start of apartheid in 1948. Apartheid resulted in many things, but the cost important factor was that of segregation of races, and classification. Different races were given different social areas, occupations and areas to live. The years to follow were full of unhappiness, and protest- both peaceful an d not. Jumping ahead to 1990, we see the beginning of change- laws lifted, and constitutions redrawn. In 1994, South Africa saw the election of their first black president and the legal end to apartheid.New Brighton, Port Elizabeth Is one of the oldest black townships In South Africa, with the Red Location- so named after the old red corrugated barracks there- being the Much peaceful, non-violent protest happened, and it was here, in 1952 that a group of local NC members marched through the â€Å"Europeans Only' entrance at the New Brighton Train Station. This was the start of many more acts of defiance. After forty- six years, apartheid ended, and the Red Location was chosen to be a site where history and the location itself, would be preserved. Alexandra Township, in Johannesburg was named a township in 1912.It was one of the few townships that was not demolished as a result of the Group Areas Act- the township was too much of an important place for people in the northern suburbs to mind labor. However, the government found that Alex was over-populated, and so sought to forcedly remove people. This led to many boycotts and protests in the area. Alex is an important part of the apartheid history, as important NC members lived there at one time or another- such as Nelson Mandela. Alexandra Township today is a bustling and vibrant area, with an ongoing project to develop and preserve it.Purpose and Concept In 1998, a national competition was held to design a precinct in the Red Location that would bring tourists into the area firstly, as well as to preserve the history of the area. It was to include new housing, a library, art centre, gallery and market hall, a conference centre, and obviously, the centre piece- a museum centered on apartheid. The winner of the competition was the Cape Town based, Nero Wolff Architects. Their scheme would formalize a public space- something that was lacking in Red Location.This â€Å"plaza† would be at the centre of the precinct- the intersection between the two roads created in the design. As well as this, there were a few factors that put it above the other entries: firstly, great care and thought was put into the call of the design- not only does it blend in with the industrial buildings in the area, but it is considerate of the scale of the township itself. The second point is its aesthetic- the language is straightforward, and the buildings celebrate the ordinary materials- like concrete and corrugated iron.This overall scheme does however, have a slight industrial feel to it- which is deliberate in tying the building into its site. And the last thing was that the building had a unique approach to preserving the history, and courting whatever exhibits it would house- all of which creates a memory evolving around the struggle for freedom, rather than apartheid itself. In 2001, the Alexandra Tourism Development Project (ATOP) was founded, by the Sautà ©ing Tourism Authority, in the hopes to de velop a number of tourism facilities and infrastructure with emphasis on the heritage of the area, and to bring in tourism.Time, effort and money were also put into upgrading the housing in the area- and this has been a hugely successful project, major improving the lives of the people that live there. And this was a big stimulant when it came to the Heritage Centre- it â€Å"must serve primarily as a resource for the community – they must be incentive of as essential and integral parts of the urban and social fabric of Alexandra – rather than simply as an attraction for visitors†. Anyone Duggan, project something that Peter Rich took into account, in his design- which we will discuss later.The Alexandra Heritage Site serves mainly as a venue space- where meetings, exhibitions and classes can be held. There will also be a permanent exhibition, showing the history, and stories of the area, as well as artworks and photographs. But according to Peter Rich, the most important feature is that it is a place where the older generations can tell their stories and record their memories. Interview in Convey, online magazine, 2011-1) Structure, Materials and the Building Process For the purpose of this essay, I will focus mainly on the Museum itself, rather than the entire Museum of Struggle Precinct.In the Red Location Museum, the building itself only serves to house and protect the exhibits- the twelve corrugated â€Å"memory boxes† (more later) hold all the significance and meaning. The building is designed to evoke little emotion, which goes to strengthen ones experience of the interior. This building is an example of a massive concrete structure- built from pre-cast concrete elements, and in-situ elements, such as the columns- which bring a sense of permanence to the building. Other than its sheer volume, perhaps the most important structural feature is the roof.For their initial design, Nero Wolff looked to anti-apartheid protest art for clues. In the painting shown, the three seminal building types are evident:, the double story school building, the â€Å"box-house† and the saw- tooth roofed factory. The saw-tooth is an image strongly associated with the factory, and during the times of apartheid, the factory was associated with civic virtue, as it as the trade unions that helped shape the internal struggle for freedom. Civic buildings at that time were also images of apartheid, so Nero Wolff wanted to create a distinction.So the Museum was designed with a saw-tooth roof- which also offered good lighting and ventilation opportunities. The Alexandra Heritage Centre primarily used red steel girders, brick and poly- carbonate sheeting, giving it a lighter appearance than the Museum- especially because it also bridges across the road, which creates an observation deck overlooking the township. Peter Rich describes it as having an â€Å"ad-hoc esthetics† (Interview in Convey, online magazine, 2011-1) whic h is influenced by the surrounding without being patronizing.It has a civic feel, but still blends into the township- much like the Red Location. Peter Rich also sort ideas out from the people- he spent a great deal of time observing daily routines and such of the area, and used this to influence the design. Both buildings used local labor. Alex not only used local labor in the construction, but also in the smaller details, like the glasswork in the windows. The Red Location used 50% local labor, and every three months, new people were brought in- trained ND put to work. This offered much in the line of employment.Analysis and Comparison which houses a library and the exhibition space and offers views of the surrounding houses. The building has many opportunities for transparency- from the entrance, you can observe below into the public spaces, outside next to the road and in the interior, the planes are interlinking. There are also ambiguous internal spaces- this allows for great f lexibility in purpose- they were designed to be able to house political as well as social events. Another dimension is added, under the bridge- this space is owe redefined as street.Because of the polycarbonate sheeting and glasswork, the building gets good daylight- which is important if the space is to be utilized for workshops and such. As one enters the Red Location Museum, one is brought from the large sweeping veranda, to the entrance hall- which takes you from the informal exterior to formal interior, with its large volume. The entrance hall serves as a transition space. The entrance also houses the auditorium, which can be accessed from both sides. From here, the movement is directed via a row of tall concrete columns which are the first splay- the â€Å"walk of heroes†.These bring you into the main exhibition space- which is initially concealed- this was deliberate, to bring in a sense of â€Å"mysteriousness†. The main exhibition space houses twelve towering rusted corrugated structures- the â€Å"memory boxes† which relate back to the actual memory boxes which were treasured items during apartheid. Through these boxes, the exhibitions could be curates through themes. Each box is different on the inside, housing an exhibit. The memory box, is supposed to represent history, while outside of the museum is the present.The space inebriate- the twilight zone- is the transitional space, where past is lost to present. And it is in this space, which one moves around in the museum- choosing your own path and therefore creating your own understanding and story. This is achieved through a deliberate lack of hierarchy- the boxes are placed in a grid. The townships share similar histories, so it is only natural that any public buildings within them would have similarities. The obvious difference is their function, but other than that, these buildings share similar approaches, labor strategies, reasons for materiality.But the biggest similarit y is that they both have a positive impact on their locations, and are strong beacons towards a better future and a new identity. The Buildings in Present Day The Alexandra Heritage Centre, after many years of delays and budget problems, is near to completion. Of course, projects to uplift and rejuvenate the area are still on going. Tours are given of Alexandra regularly (called shoo' left(s)) which include visits to Mandela's Yard and the Heritage Centre. From the limited resources available, it is evident that the community think this building is a huge success- which is the most important opinion.It will take a few years, and more rejuvenation of the area, to bring in the amount of tourism that the ATOP hope to bring in, however. The museum. Currently, the next phases- the art gallery and the library/archive are completed- with minor interior issues still to be resolved- these are not open to the public yet. Future plans for the site include more, higher density housing, and an a rts school- which will include a theatre which can bring in more involvement from the community.The precinct is very successful- it brings in tourist attention, the community love it and make use of it on a daily basis. On a larger scale, the Museum does much to rejuvenate South Africa, in post-apartheid times. Conclusion When asked, how does architecture affect social change and identity in this country, one needs to look at why it is necessary to uplift the community and why perhaps, is change needed. It is evident that huge change was required after apartheid to begin to heal this country, and one of the biggest tools the apartheid government had to control people, was space.Through the two public buildings that were compared, we can see how this country, through architecture, has begun to correct itself. These buildings are not patronizing to anyone- not any race or class- and aside from their obvious functions, they bring about new change and identity to their respective commun ities. We can successfully reach this conclusion now, as we know the background and context, and are well acquainted with the buildings through an understanding of structure, materials, purpose and concept.As with most things, change is ongoing, and the Red Location Precinct and Alexandra Heritage Centre are testament to this. As a young architect in South Africa, it is clear to me, that to create successful public buildings, a good understanding of the surrounding context, community and history is obvious, as well as an understanding that the architects role is to create spaces- and that space can have a huge affect on people, and that it is our duty to shape this space as best to assist the community as possible.

Creative writing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Creative writing - Essay Example The Introduction of the essay appropriately identifies the features and elements of the disease in question, GSD. The authors of the article appropriately establish the role of the disease in the context of the community and society at hand. The sociological and biological elements of the disease is discussed thoroughly and three important variables are introduced: These issues are discussed critically and appropriately through the evaluation of existing data and other scientific journals. This is authoritative because the utilisation of secondary sources build on credible and established sources and it is applied appropriately to provide important guidance to an existing research (MacFarlene, et al., 2014). The critical review of concepts and theories in the introduction give way for the formulation of a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a tentative statement that is tested for its truthfulness and falsity in a research (Lam, 2013). In this paper, the writer seem to make a very vague statement which does not seem to provide a very strong hypothesis that can be used as a basis for proper theorisation. It states that â€Å"There will be a significant association between selected demographic variables and risk factors of cholilithiasis†. In symbol terms the study is to evaluate the relationship between demographic variables and risks of GSD. The independent variables are the demographic variables whilst the dependent variables are risks of GSD. However, they are not clearly defined and aligned appropriately showing some tendencies of randomness and arbitrariness in the eventual conclusion. The study utilises a cross-sectional study method. A cross-sectional study is a descriptive study in which disease and exposure statuses are measured simultaneously in a given population (Kern, et al., 2013). This comes with some inherent

Pholosophy Questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Pholosophy Questions - Essay Example The rest of the personality is developed by the society. In order to be flexible, individuals must doubt their views and beliefs. This doubt holds critical importance in the journey to discover the truth. It may lead an individual into impasses and dilemmas initially but eventually doubt leads to a point that does not leave any more room for doubt. This elimination of doubt creates a sense of irrefutable authenticity in the beliefs and views of an individual. The degree of doubt presented by Descartes’ first meditations is astounding. Descartes takes the measure of doubt to a whole new level which even involves doubting one’s innate senses. He presents arguments and situations that clarify the need for such doubts. This also questions the existence of oneself, which he mentions as ‘I’ (Williams, Descartes & Cottingham, 1996). The diversity of opinions in the world has created so much room for error. If everyone firmly believes that his/her views are qualifi ed, then who is right and who is wrong. Surely there has to be one path towards the truth; therefore doubting all of the opinions including one’s own is necessary to filter out the real truth. The fact that Descartes takes the degree of doubt to another level stems from his idea to even doubt one’s basic senses of perception upon which all knowledge is based. The idea that senses of perception can deceive an individual does not cross logic since they have deceived people in the past. Our senses have deceived us in matters of observation of minute and distant objects. This is a reasonable claim to support the argument of doubting our senses. However, Descartes cannot reject the authentic of a certain set of basic knowledge such geometry and arithmetic. The first argument presented by Descartes in favor of doubting one’s senses relates to dreams. Dreams feel real until we are woken up from them so who is to decide if the present situation is not a dream but in fac t reality. Being asleep and awake are two different things so it is possible that one of these states is actually the reality but what if both these states are actually a part of an unrealized dream. If the present is not a reality but actually a dream then the mind and body do not exist in reality; they are mere illusions. This is the argument upon which Descartes doubts the authenticity of his senses; However, Rene further presents another side of the picture by drawing an analogy from a painting. Whatever a painter paints on the canvas comes from what he/she observes around him. Even if the painter paints something completely out of this world, he/she still uses the colors that are around him thereby testifying the existence of these colors and objects in the painting. Similarly dreams can be imagined as our canvas and whatever we see in them is a reflection of the things that we observe while we are awake. No matter how irrational the dreams may be, they are still influenced by the reality as we perceive it. So what we see in dreams must actually exist, however, the dreams may not be entirely based on the reality but perhaps carry only the nuance of reality. This argument basically means that dreams do not testify the existence of the body and all its senses, in fact it testifies to the existence of basic knowledge such as geometry and arithmetic, which cannot be doubted. All other knowledge such as physics and astronomy are based on them. The concepts presented in these

Sustainability and Waste Management in uk catering industry Dissertation

Sustainability and Waste Management in uk catering industry - Dissertation Example .. 3.0 Methodology†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 4.0 Result and Findings†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦... 5.0 Discussion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 6.0 Conclusion and Recommendation†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 7.0 References†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 8.0 Figures and Tables Figure 1: UK Catering Services Providers’ Perception of Environmental Pollution†¦ Figure 2: Common Hindrances to the Implementation of Sustainability Policies†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Table 1: Factors Influencing Effective Waste Management†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 1.0 Abstract/Introduction This paper investigates the factors affecting sustainability and waste development in UK catering industry. Efforts are made to explain the current level of awareness of the environmental pollution. Some dramatic ways to manage the waste are appropriately highlighted. This is done with a great emphasis on the governmental challenges in confronting the menace of environmental pollution and waste management. ... Elaborate literature review is conducted to buttress the fact that the threat of waste and environmental pollution is real. The methodology employed for this study is an integration of qualitative and quantitative. Questionnaires were handed out to randomly select catering services providers. And the corresponding results and findings from this study are clearly presented and utilized in discussing the continuous danger environmental pollution poses on UK catering services. Appropriate conclusion and recommendations are provided at the end of this paper. 2.0 Literature Review Sustainable development has recently become a hot topic for discussion in most businesses. According to the World Commission on Environment and Development Report (1987, P. 43), sustainable development is defined as â€Å"meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.† We can use the resources from the ecological system based on the availab le capacity of the resource base, and making sure that the wastes we create do not threaten the capacity of that particular ecosystem (Jennings and Zandbergen, 1995, P. 1019). Although some companies want to reduce environmental problems, two different perspectives are just holding back the progress (Hoffman, 2000, P. 9): The traditional aspect is concentrated on the debate about the observation of environmental legislation and the firms’ social responsibility. Second, the managers must accept that the firm’s overall strategy and environmental concerns inevitably must go hand in hand. Then, they need to find a way that satisfies the objectives of economic competitiveness and environmental protection at the same time. The environmental policy is guided by

Human Resource Management Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Human Resource Management - Research Paper Example Introduction Before going into the discussion regarding compensation and benefits, which is one of the most specialized parts of the human resource management, let us get a better understanding of the importance of a well-structured compensation plan in maintaining a productive workforce. A compensation plan is a set of those rewards, remuneration, and benefits, which are provided to the employees by the HR department of the company in order to increase employee productivity. Compensation plans not only help the companies retain skilled employees but also assist HR staff in recruitment processes. Obringer (n.d.) asserts, â€Å"To make your company competitive and attractive to job candidates, you have to offer an exceptional total benefits package†. The thesis statement for this paper is, â€Å"Why is it important for a company to offer a well-structured compensation plan to its employees?† Importance of Compensation Plans Compensation and benefits play an important rol e in making a company achieve increased employee productivity. A well-structured compensation plan is one of the key motivating forces behind increased productivity. If human resource department of a company offers a competitive compensation plan to the employees as a reward for their individual performances, the employees become motivated and they put their efforts to do more for their company. Employee efficiency and organizational productivity depend directly on the types of compensation that are offered to the employees by the company. It is a common fact that the employees like to work for such companies, which give value to the employees’ needs and demands by offering them attractive compensation plans. Keimig (2008) asserts, â€Å"Generous benefit packages (especially those with an emphasis on health insurance and retirement savings) tend to attract employees who are looking for long-term, stable positions†. A well-structured compensation plan needs various fact ors to be considered during development, which include type of the compensation plan, conditions for plan implementation, payment calculation method, culture of the organization, and practicalities of the compensation plan. Some of the main reasons behind the need to design and implement a well-structured compensation plan include increasing employees’ moral, ensuring internal and external equity, reducing the turnover, encouraging employees’ performance and productivity, increasing employees’ loyalty, hiring and retaining skilled staff, and making the employees satisfied with their jobs. Dalton (n.d.) states, â€Å"The employee's family can also receive benefits, should the employee die as a result of the injuries or illness sustained at the company†. Another reason for implementing an appropriate compensation plan is to succeed in today’s competitive markets. It is the 21st century and the level of competition between the companies has reached it s heights. Implementation of compensation plans play a valuable role in making the companies excels in the markets. Therefore, it is extremely important for the companies to hire and retain skilled employees in order to get competitive edge over the competitors. Why Is It Necessary To Have A Compensation Plan? It is very necessary for a company to implement a compensation plan because it increases productivity of the workforce. We can hardly find any employee who is not interested in getting higher pays and

Application of State and Federal Law within the Reservation Research Paper

Application of State and Federal Law within the Reservation - Research Paper Example These constitutions at one time gave the tribes quite a bit of power in making decisions and enforcing legal contracts with the people. However, over the last few years tribal power has been diminished with the most dramatic decrease happening with the Indian Civil Rights Act in 1968. Under this act, tribal courts are denied the power to impose sentences in criminal cases in excess of $5,000. and/or one year in jail (Robertson, 2001, pg 9). This has become a very big issue in taking care of criminal problems on the reservations. To add to the problem, if a tribal member feels their rights have been violated, they cannot take that to Federal Court, it has to go to Tribal Court. Congress has also made the tribes responsible for Environmental Laws as determined by the Federal Government as well as Federal Tax laws. The United States government maintains that it is the guardian for the tribes or trustee. This role came from the Cherokee Nation v Georgia ( Robertson, 2001, pg 3) This allows the Federal Government to hold the underlying fee title for reservation lands. That is why they are called trust lands. This guardianship capacity like all guardianship laws allows the Federal government to impose legislation affecting Indians that are the best for them. They are supposedly held to a very high standard for this. Tribal status under all of these laws is considered a political classification. Prohibitory State law applies to reservation land, regulatory does not always. This allows the State and Federal justice system to enforce environmental laws. The reason they can do this is because most environmental laws are prohibitory in nature. On the one hand the Federal government sees that they probably do not have the right to enforce such laws on Indian land but they are also responsible for the welfare of the people under their guardianship clause. It appears from many reviewed cases that the Federal government chooses to enforce when it is convenient to them (www.senat.leg). It is not done the same way every time. This is one of those places where the Reservation Court would not have jurisdiction to enforce because it is Federal law and because the charge is greater than $5,000. It places the tribal enforcement in a poor place because they cannot enforce but are obliged to report. In this case, the advantage seems to be on the side of the State and Federal governments. Another legal situation that has recently come to light based on the reservations and Federal law is the case the IRS and the auction of Indian lands to pay Internal Revenue taxes. This is one of the poorest Indian Reservations in the nation. The lands belong to the Crow Creek Sioux Tribe. The Federal government says they own Federal income taxes. The tribe has been trying to develop wind energy and this is the land that is set for that development. The land to be auctioned is 7100 acres (Martin, 2009). The law says that Indian tribes are not usually susceptible to tax laws. They are when there is business entities associated with the tribe. The IRS says the

Health Demand, Elasticity, Principle and Agent in Determining Demand Coursework

Health Demand, Elasticity, Principle and Agent in Determining Demand for Medical Care - Coursework Example The cited unique factors may be classified within the â€Å"health status† variable that impact expectation but their role are far too important in the healthcare setting to be relegated as a mere sub-factor. This is the case because the patients are the ones seeking care and that demand is initiated based on their healthcare needs. Afterwards, the physician then prescribes the quantity as well as type of treatment/medical product or service to be needed. For instance, a person is admitted into emergency care because of severe diabetes. Upon examination, the physician has determined that one of his legs has to be amputated in order to save his life. Here, the demand for the surgery and the medications entailed were determined based on the condition of the patient and the judgment of physician. I believe that if the patient is insured the impact of income and price may be diminished. This can also be highlighted in the dynamics behind the decline of price and its impact on dema nd. In conventional goods, a decline would precipitate demand. However, in the case of health care a decline in price, say, of a diabetes drug, would not immediately translate into demand or a significant change in the demand curve because it will be dependent on the number of diabetics and their need and health status. Imagine a situation where consumers have incomplete information about their health status and about the productivity of medical care. Examine the roles of the principal and the agent in helping consumers to determine the demand for medical care in the described situation. Provide at least one (1) detailed example of such roles in action to support your response. Let us suppose that the patient is covered by medical insurance. He is, in effect, the principal in this situation while the physician serves as his agent, acting in his best interest since his decisions are made to improve the patient's well-being. This is the ideal scenario where the agent recommends care services and medications for the client’s benefit. For instance, the physician could prescribe highly-paid and, therefore, effective procedures. The patient without any medical knowledge as to his condition or the treatment would not have known the difference between such procedures and low-paid primary care. But t he condition and the physician’s influence move the demand curve towards highly-paid care and specialties.

Line Managers and HRM Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Line Managers and HRM - Essay Example Retailco at the same time is also not interested in investing much into the part timers as the major advantage of hiring the part time workers is the cost saving as compared to the full time workers. Another problem with the part time workers is that the part time workers have other commitments too. The turnover of part time workers is high as they have less loyalty and less bonding with the organization working in. On the other hand, the full time work force is expensive to manage and maintain. The part time workers are only paid for their services whereas the full time workers also receive a hefty benefits package alongwith their basic salary. From the perspective of recruitment of part time workers as opposed to full time employees, the part time workers have to be hired more frequently. Store managers have substantial responsibility in terms of management and human resource activities. These managers are responsible for local HR activities including, but not restricted to, recruitment and selection, on-the-job training, staff scheduling and performance management. The workforce majority being the part time workers pose a difficulty for the store managers to manage their time to conduct such additional tasks which do not directly contribute to their performance. Store managers have set cost targets and budgets constraints within which they have to remain. They believe that hiring full time workers costs more in terms of overtime rate, for example, and thus they would run out of their budget limits if they hire full time workers. Thus they prefer hiring part time workers over full time employees. Another problem arising as a consequence of such a budget based recruitment practice is that the recruitment is

Sophocles` Oedipus The King And Shakespeare`S Othello Essay Example for Free

Sophocles` Oedipus The King And Shakespeare`S Othello Essay Greek literature was rich in dramas and tragic heroes.  The main rules for defining the real tragic hero were summarized and sharply distinguished by Aristotle; he worked out six important characteristics for the true tragic hero: hamartia, hubris, anagnorisis, peripeteia, nemesis and catharsis; hamartia – a serious mistake, which is the main reason of downfall of the hero, this mistake is often made because of hubris – extreme pride, after the downfall the hero learns a lesson or makes a discovery this is defined by the notion anagnorisis, reversal of fortune is called peripeteia, nemesis means some circumstances, which the hero could not avoid, practically his fate. Aristotle, 13). The last one – catharsis – denotes the feeling of fear and pity experienced by the audience; in closing this should be a person who is â€Å"between these extremes . . . a person who is neither perfect in virtue and justice, nor one who falls into misfortune through vice and depravity, but rather, one who succumbs through some miscalculation (Aristotle, 18). Guided by the above-mentioned instructions we are going to analyze two famous plays: Sophocles’s Oedipus the king and Shakespeare’s Othello, namely their main heroes. Both Oedipus and Othello are tragic heroes. They both show signs of hubris, yet they have admirable qualities that have raised them to the position they have. In fact, their very strengths are also their weaknesses. Most critics consider Oedipus the perfect example of tragic hero. Indeed if to evaluate the correspondence of Oedipus to the characteristics of Aristotle he meets all the parameters. His nobility is out of question, as he was born in a royal family, although raised by adoptive parents, who were also the King and Queen of Corinth, and finally, when he managed to solve the riddle of Sphinx, he got the dominion over the city. Shakespeare’s Othello is also a tragic hero and also corresponds to the Aristotle’s characteristics. Othello, as well as Oedipus, had to come through pride, fatal mistake and self-destruction. Othello is a noble man and an outstanding military leader. But in reality his greatness was combined with his weakness: on the one hand he was brave and intelligent, on the other hand he was somewhat passive and fell under the influence and allowed Iago manipulate him. Oedipus’s hubris could be seen in his desire to prove to his city that he was able to solve the mystery and save the citizens from the plague. Besides he was rather self -assured, which can be confirmed by his own words in the opening lines of the prologue, when he states Here I am myselfyou all know me, the world knows my fame: I am Oedipus. (Sophocles, 11). Oedipus had every reason to believe that he was a prominent personality and he wanted to support his high status for his subordinates, in this way his strength unexpectedly for him turned into his weak side. Hamartia of Oedipus is very important and sophisticated. His tragic flows rooted from his lack of knowledge about his true identity, but he could not be responsible for his flow as he was not able to change anything with his actions. In fact, Oedipus didn’t make any mistakes, he suffered the consequences of somebody else’s old mistake in the past. Actually the peripetea is closely related to hamartia of Oedipus, as the bad fortune followed the hero from his very birth. Othello’s hamartia or downfall, when she killed his beloved wife, was the result of his hubris – he was so much afraid that his pride could be hurt in case of Desdemona’s unfaithfulness that he didn’t even stop to think whether all the Iago’s arguments were correct or not – â€Å"Thy honesty and love doth mince this matter My friend, thy husband, honest, honest Iago† (Shakespeare, 8). Moreover he preferred to trust Iago instead of listening to his wife. In this case such virtue as trust turned out to have a destructing force for the hero. In contrast to Oedipus Othello could avoid his tragic flow, if only his reaction to the words of Iago were different. Catharsis of the audience is characterized by very profound emotions and feelings of sympathy towards Oedipus, when he instead of committing suicide, chose terrible tortures for himself. When Oedipus realized what had happened to him in reality, he said: Oh, oh, then everything has come out true. Light, I shall not look on you Again. I have been born where I should not be born, I have been married where I should not marry, I have killed whom I should not kill; now all is clear (Sophocles, 32). Being blind he belonged neither to this word nor to the other word, thus his suffering was not finished even at the end of the play. No doubts, that the audience experienced sympathy and pity for Othello after his murder. The realization of his awful deed hurt Othello deeply, but as distinct from Oedipus he chose suicide. Overall, both heroes Othello and Oedipus could be referred to as classical examples of Aristotle’s tragic hero. They are both very strong and outstanding personalities, noble and fair; after getting their high positions they however developed such features as obstinacy, self-assurance, mightiness. Both of them took wrong decisions and became the victims of their fatal mistakes, which finally transformed their strengths into their weak points and led to tragic finals.

The Dalits of India Essay Example for Free

The Dalits of India Essay I had been planning my trip to India for a year. I read about the Dalit people by accident one day while waiting for my car at a car repair shop. The Dalit people — also known as â€Å"Untouchables† — have been the most oppressed caste for over 3,000 years, living at the bottom of Indias rigid social order. The word â€Å"Dalit† means â€Å"broken, ground-down, downtrodden, or oppressed. † Dalits comprise about  ¼ of the population of India: that’s seven times the entire population of Canada. [1] This large group of people are considered to pollutants to the rest of India. They are considered to be a lower class of people and are treated this way. The Dalit people are only given disgusting jobs like preparing bodies for cremation, picking up human waste and dead animals. The Adivasis is the collective name used for the many tribal peoples of India. Adivasis are not an homogenous group — with over 200 tribes speaking over 100 languages, which vary greatly in ethnicity, culture and language; however there are similarities in their way of life and generally perceived inferior position within Indian society. There are over 50 million Adivasis constituting 7. 5% of the Indian population, thus making it the largest tribal population in the world. 2] The best way for me to prepare for this trip was to get back to the basics. I started by weaning myself off of modern day conveniences. I packed away my coffee pot and my gps. I learned how to use a compass and a map. I took a few camping trips to learn how to start a fire and cook food on that fire. I researched the native plant life of India so I will know what I can eat and touch. I packed my luggage 6 months early. Every week or two I would go through and re-pack, getting down to the basics. During the ‘weaning process, I learned a lot about myself and how much stuff I do not need. The 67. 7 million people belonging to Scheduled Tribes in India are generally considered to be Adivasis, literally meaning indigenous people or original inhabitants, though the term Scheduled Tribes (STs) is not coterminous with the term Adivasis. Scheduled Tribes is an administrative term used for purposes of administering certain specific constitutional privileges, protection and benefits for specific sections of peoples considered historically disadvantaged and backward. [3] In 1952 the Nehruvian Panchsheel gave the Adivasi these rights: 1. Tribals should be llowed to develop according to their own genius. 2. Tribals’ rights in land and forest should be respected 3. Tribal teams should be trained to undertake administration and development without too many outsiders being inducted. 4. Tribal development should be undertaken without disturbing tribal social and cultural institutions 5. The index of tribal development should be the quality of their life and not the money spent [4] The race is India but the cultures are different from the ‘normal’ India natives. The Culture of the Dalits is one of hard-work and rest, honesty and simplicity, achievements and celebrations. Dalits are always creative and productive, celebrations and enjoyments. Come with that freedom, frankness, open heartedness, songs, steps, beats, drums, dance and drama; food, feasting, festivals, thanksgiving, worship, prayer and sacrifices. It is an agriculture based agrarian farm culture. [5] These groups of people are so hated that officers that are paid to protect and enforce laws never bother. They are just there for the pay. The ‘outside’ world does not want to learn about these people. If they were just given a chance, other would learn that they are not lower class people because they are poor or live a very simple life. They do not show any relevance to the modern communist economy. They have collective ownership of the means of production, they have a sense of equality among community members, they have a spirit of cooperation with each other, they make consensus decisions pertaining to the community and aim to protect and nurture their environment. With all the planning and weaning I did to prepare, I was still amazed when I first arrived. Beautiful and sad. The people are treated like a lower class but they are so full of love and life. I learned so much about life in just the few months that I was there. Even when life sucks, you can make the best out of it. Even though these people are suppressed and treated very poorly, they survive. With the help of foundations like the Dalit Freedom Network, they will continue to survive and their lives will slowly get better. I will continue to pass the story of the Dalits along to everyone I come in contact with. Their story is an encouraging one. It is my hopes that my story will touch the heart of at least one person, so that someday, other peoples like the Dalits will people who care.

Profiling Human Hair with FTIR Spectroscopy and Chemometrics

Profiling Human Hair with FTIR Spectroscopy and Chemometrics ABSTRACT Profiling of Human Hairs using FTIR Spectroscopy and Chemometrics Technique Aufa Madihah Binti Mohamad Anwar 1122204 Hair is any of the fine threadlike strands growing from the skin of humans can be found in crime scene due to interaction between victim, perpetrator and/or witness as explained in Locard’s Principle. This papers aim is to compare, categorize and identify human hair fiber using FTIR spectrometer and Chemometrics techniques. Hair samples will be collected from 200 subjects (Malay Women) of different ages groups. 50 samples will be collected from age group of people (20-30, 31-40, 41-50, >60). FTIR spectra will be obtained from each samples. The spectra of FTIR reflect the chemical and physical nature of a hair which can be classified in different group using Chemometrics techniques such as PCA (Principal Component Analysis). Keyword: FTIR, Chemometrics, Locard’s Principle, PCA Research Methodology 6.1 Materials Material uses in this experiment will be human hair. 50 strands will be collected for each group of age and the total hair strand obtained will be 200 strands: 6.2 Methods 6.2.1 Human Hair sample collection Human hair will be collected according to their age group (50 strands from each group of age). The hair fibers taken will be from telogen (fall naturally) phase and anagen (the root was cut) phase of the hair growth cycle. The hair fibers will be placed in a plastic bag and labeled accordingly. 6.3 Analysis 6.3.1 Revised IAEA Method for Cleaning Hair Fibers The cleaning process is needed to preserved hair samples for the elemental analysis. (Cargnello et al., 1995) The hair fibers will undergo ultrasonic vibration (sonicating) in each solutions for 10 minutes or less. This procedure will be done to minimize the damage of the cuticle surface. First, the hair fibers will be transferred to a small glass vial and will be covered with high purity acetone. The vial was then will be placed in Ultrasonic Disintegrator (Figure 6). The hair fibers will be sonicate of at 20 kHz for 10 minutes at the least. The acetone will be poured out and the hair will be rinsed with HPLC-grade water. These steps will be repeated again and for the last steps, the hair fibers will be rinsed and sonicated in de-ionized water inside the glass vial for 10 minutes. After all the cleaning process ended, the hair fiber will be dried under vacuum for two days before being analyzed. Figure 6 : Ultrasonic Disintegrator – Sonicater for the hair fibers 6.3.2 FTIR Spectroscopy A FTIR Spectrometer with Diamond ATR Smart Accessory (Figure 7) will be used in this procedure. The spectra of hair fibers will be recorded using the spectrometer. Figure 7: FTIR Spectrometer with Diamond Smart Accessory The parameters of FTIR-ATR for the analysis (Table 2): Before analyzing and collecting the spectrum from the hair samples, a background spectrum will be recorded. The hair fibers will then going through spectral sampling process : The fibers will be placed across the diamond crystal and will be pressed (to obtain a good contact) using the pressure tower. Spectrum will be recorded. The collected data will be saved on the Spectral Software Program (as .SPC files). Spectral Processing The recorded spectral will be saved as .SPC files and are imported into the spectral software package for spectral processing as .SPA files. First of all, the baseline of the spectra will be corrected and the offset will be set to zero. Then, the spectra will be trimmed so that it will be in the range of ÃŽ ±-keratin absorption bands which is 1759-785 cm-1 range (major characteristic of ÃŽ ±-keratin). The trimmed spectral will then be transferred to an Excel spreadsheet and saved as an .XLS file. Raw Data Matrix and Chemometric Analysis Pre-processing of data is defined as â€Å"mathematical manipulation of a data is used due to primary analysis†. (Arnberg R. et al., 1998).This step helps in eliminating or decreasing unrelated sources (systematic or random errors). Variance Scaling Scaling steps will be done prior to the fact that the treatment considers both the measurement unit of the values and the origin of scale. (Meloun M. et al., 1992) Scaling is needed to include: Cartesian system’s shift of the origin, Axes’ contraction or expansion. Double Centring Double string will be obtained by subtracting the mean of each row x (x-mean centring) and row y (y-mean centring). This procedure reduces the effect of the variance component reflected by PCI of the un-pretreated data set and removes common spectral features. (Kokot S. et al., 1997) Equation 1 and Equation 2 (Meloun M. et al., 1992) described the process above: Yim = xim – x.mEquation 1 Continued by; zim = yim yi Equation 2 Where; yim = column centred datum xim = datum in row I and column m before centring x.m = mean of column m = xim / I zim = double centred datum Standardization The standardization procedure is included to equalize the variance of each variable and to remove the weighting that is artificially imposed by the scale of the variables. (Arnberg R. et al., 1998) Standardization process can be described in the equation 3 and 4 below: yim = xim / sm Equation 3 Where; sm = (xim – x.m)2  ½ Equation 4 I – 1 = the estimate of the standard deviation of the variable, xm, about its mean. Albano et al. state that â€Å"standardization of each subset separately gives better resolution in latent variable modeling of subsets†. (Albano et al., 1981) Auto-scaling Combination of column centring and standardization is known auto-scaling. It can be represented by Equation 5 (Meloun M. et al., 1992): zim = (yim – yi) / sm Equation 5 Chemometric Analysis The doubled centred matrices will be imported into the software that cans multivariate analysis and experimental design. The processed matrices will produce the resultant PCA scores plots, loading plots and fuzzy clustering tables. Multi-criteria Decision Making (MCDM) The multivariate analysis method (PROMETHEE and GAIA) will find the relationships between the objects and variables severally. The matrix data will then undergoes packaging for decision making. Chemometrics Chemometrics helps in analysis of spectral data by solving the calibration problem. It uses statistical and mathematical methods to correlate quality parameters to analytical instrument data. The data will be observed and recorded. Then, patterns in data will be brought out and modeled. The modeled patterns will be used for data analysis in future. (Einax J.W. et al., 1997) 6.3.5.1 Principal Component Analysis (PCA) PCA is a well-known pattern recognition method for pertaining to any procedure involving multivariate (two or more variables) data analysis problems. Identification and discrimination of the objects can be obtained with the help of PCA whereby it is a data reduction technique. Data reduction technique is when the information is sorted into a data matrix using selected variables that define the columns and rows which was designated with sample measurements. PCjk = aj1xk1 + aj2xk2 + †¦ ajnxkn Equation 6 Where; PCjk = value for object k and principal component j aj1 = variable 1 on object k value xk1 = variable 1 on component j measurement n = original variables total number 6.3.5.2 SIMCA (Soft Independent Modeling of Class Analogy) Classification is defines as the process of categorizing something according to same qualities or characteristics. SIMCA is supervised method for classification of data. The method requires a training (test) data set consisting of samples where their origins are known. PCA is used to develop a model of each class within the test set. The users will select the members of a set. A model can be representing by the equation (Chatfield C., 1980): Xki = Xi + + ajiujk + eki Equation 7 Where; p = number of the principal components in the class model eki = residual value of object k on variable i Gant Chart for Research Timeline Expected Results The research regarding human scalp hair resulted in new database on human hair according to their age group for woman, Malay. With the help of chemometrics method the human hair database can be created. The data obtained from Fourier-transform Infrared Spectroscopy which was then analyze and modeled through chemometrics and the new database is set. In the database, the human hair was classified according to their age group and the composition that differs the age. Through the research, it shows that in human hair the amount of amino acid (protein) differs. As the age increase, the amounts of amino acid (protein) decrease and as the age lower the amino acid (protein) higher. 9.0 Conclusion This study is proposed to help creating a new database besides furthering investigation on human hair as physical evidence. Theory of physical evidence can be quoted from Locard’s Principal which stated that â€Å"every contact leaves a trace. Physical evidence cannot be faulty; it can’t perjure itself, and it always present. Only human failure to study, explore and understand it can diminish its worth†. Furthermore, fibers evidence is often found at the crime scene. Thus, in creating this new database it can aids in forensic process. The human hair samples that was obtained from different age group (20-30, 31-40, 41-50, >60) but same gender and race undergoes FTIR spectroscopy to detect the amount of amino acid (protein). The data was then was analyze using chemometrics. In short, it can be concluded that the amount of amino acid (protein) is inversely proportional to the age group.

Death of a Salesman, Arthur Miller :: essays research papers

Dangerous Ground of Illusion Relations between fathers and the younger generation have been and continue to be an important theme for various literary genres (King Lear, Shakespeare; Fathers and Sons, Turgenev). For many famous writers the significance of fathers’ influence on their children forms a subject of particular interest. . In the play, Death of a Salesman, Arthur Miller shows in a very striking manner that the father's influence can be either positive or fatal. The dispiriting story of the three generations of the Lomans family contrasts with the happy account of the life of their neighbors, Charley and his son Bernard. The author details father-and-son relations in the Lomans family over a long period of time. He effortlessly demonstrates that a younger generation both inherits the father's way of life and assimilates his best or worst features. He tells us almost nothing about Willy Loman’s, the main character's, father. All we know is that he played a flute. Also he was a handy man, because he invented a gadget to make flutes. He was making and selling flutes, traveling across the country in a wagon. He took his family with him wherever he went. When Willy was about four years old, his father went to Alaska seeking to earn a fortune and disappeared amidst Alaska's expanses. Though the period when his sons Ben and Willy were with him was short, it left an indelible impression on the boys’ memory. Later, each of them inherited a part of this way of life: the older son Ben got a passion for adventure and travel, and the younger son Willy got a profession of salesmen and an interest to work with wood. Though the father's influence was quite indirect; he mostly figured in their afterglow and rather idealistic fancies, both of them became decent and hard-working people. At the age of seventeen, Ben left his home for Alaska, but soon found himself in Africa and at twenty-one he was already rich. He spent the rest of his life in Africa where he died. He was a wealthy, influential and successful man and fathered seven children. He preferred to be brutal but effective, as befits the jungles of life. On one of his brief visits to Willy's home he admonished Biff, his nephew: "Never fight fair with a stranger, boy. You'll never get out of the jungle that way." Unlike his elder brother, Willy did not have enough strength to be aggressive and to take advantage of the opportunities offered by life.

Essay --

The WW1 Conscription is one of the significant PR events that occurred in Australia in the 20th century. The Government in essence intended to adopt a conscription policy so as to enhance its fighting capacity. Nevertheless it could not impose this policy unless it received the support of the Nation and therefore it had to persuade its citizen to support it by voting in the referendum. It however faced a very strong opposition with both parties adopting various public relation strategies to influence the public perception towards conscription. The Government lost in both referendums implying that its PR campaigns were not as effective as those of the opposition. The opposition therefore can still rely on the PR strategy it had applied during WW1 conscription to block any attempts by the Government to reintroduce conscription. However, the new campaign should utilize modern media and PR strategies so as to persuade effectively the current sophisticated audience (Sheehan 2007). Conscription can simply be defined as mandatory military recruitment of people of a certain age group. A brief analysis of the public relation campaign adopted prior and during the WWW 1 will help clarify why conscription is considered to be a public relation event. Grunig and Hunt (1984) cited in Sheehan (2007) argues that the One-Way Communication model that adopted publicity and public information strategy, and the Two-Way Communication model, special emphasis being on Two-Way Asymmetric strategy, were the main model. Each one of these model had a main aim; the main aim of publicity was to spread propaganda; the aim of public information was information dissemination; and lastly the aim of two-way asymmetric strategy was to scientifically persuade the pub... ...owards ensuring the public supported this policy. This it did considering it faced a very strong opposition with the anti-conscription equally engaging in rigorous PR campaign aimed at blocking the government efforts toward introducing mandatory military recruitment. Some of the PR strategies and tactics engaged in by both parties included spreading propagandistic message, scientifically persuading the target audience by applying two-way asymmetric model, and occasionally engaging in information dissemination. The fact that the Government failed in both the referendum implies that the opposition strategy was effective. It should therefore adapt almost a similar approach to block any new effort by the Government to reintroduce conscription. However it should incorporate modern strategies and/or tactics so as to fully reach the now very sophisticated audience.

Woodstock Essay -- essays research papers

Woodstock 1969 The Sixties were an exciting revolutionary period with great cultural change. Some people called it the â€Å"decade of discontent† (Britannica) due to the race riots in Detroit and La, and the demonstrations against the Vietnam War. Other people called it the decade of â€Å"peace, love, and harmony† (Woodstock 69). This decade was identified as such as a result of the peace movement and the emergence of the flower children. (Britannica) The sixties were about assassination, unforgettable fashion, new styles of music, civil rights, gay and women’s liberation, Vietnam, Neil Armstrong landing on the moon, peace marches, sexual freedom, drug experimentation, and Woodstock. All of these components caused a revolutionary change in the world of popular Music and society. The most famous of the Sixties rock festivals was Woodstock music and art fair. It was held on farm property in Bethel New York on August 15-17th 1969 (Woodstock 69). Three Days of peace and music wou ld come to define a generation. Festival organizers decided on the title Woodstock because it was where folksinger Bob Dylan and many other musicians lived in New York. It was an artists’ retreat since the turn of the century. People came from all around, some for the music, some for atmosphere and some just to be there. Although peace was a main theme of the concert, it was difficult to keep with a crowd of 400,000 people. Woodstock contained all six of the qualities of cultural performance, a cultural process...

Assessing the Role of Motivation on Employees Essay

In this light the study sets to identify the most ranked factors among the ten motivational factors. The analysis from the empirical findings showed that Job satisfaction† was the most ranked factor for both sub groups that made up the sample survey. However a study from previous researches used in this study showed that different results could be obtained from different groups of already working employees. This study therefore can be seen as an introduction to a more detailed study to be carried by future researchers on the field of employee’s motivation. Background When looking at factors that affect job satisfaction, I find that Agency theory might be helpful as it explains the extent to which organizations need to think of their human resource responsible in producing the output needed by organizations to meet shareholders value. Agency theory is concerned with issues related to the ownership of the firm when that ownership is separated from the day-to-day running of the organization. It assumes that in all but owner- managed organizations the owner or owners (known in agency theory as the â€Å"principal†) of an organization must vest authority to an â€Å"agent†-corporate management- to act on their behalf. The principal recognizes the risk, here and act on the assumption that any agent will look to serve its own as well as the principal interests as it ulfils it contract with that principal. However, this is not the situation in real life situation. As all agents are perceived to be Opportunistic. These approaches are to examine the problems of human exchange derived from the field of finance and economics but they are often applied to the study of shareholders Risk Management (SHRM). Agency theory is therefore used to analyze this conflict in interest between the principal (shareholders of o rganizations) and their agents (leaders of these organizations). Whereby the â€Å"Agents† in keeping with the interest of the shareholders and organizational goals turn to use financial motivational aspects like bonuses, higher payrolls, pensions, sick allowances, risk payments, perks to reward and retained their employees and enhance their performance. There is a strong lobby propounding the view that human resources and their management are the source of competitive advantage for the business, rather than, say, access to capital or use of technology. It is therefore logical to suggest that, attention needs to be paid to the nature of this resource and its management as this will impact on human resource behavior and performance and consequently the performance of the organization. Indeed Boxall and Steeneveld (1999) argue that there is no need to prove the relationship between firm critical influence on performance and labour management as it is self evident that the quality of human resource management is a critical influence on the performance of the firm. Concern for strategic integration, commitment flexibility and quality, has called for attention for employees motivation and retention. Given this perception, the principal in an organization feels unable to predict an agent’s behavior in any given situation and so brings into play various measures to do with incentives in other to tie employee’s needs to those of their organization. Thus getting employee’s identification with respect to the organization, and thus increasing their commitment level. As an approach to mediate the employment contract, elements of human resource strategy (especially those to do with rewards and retention) can offer a way of ensuring an efficient transaction process that enables both parties to get committed towards the fulfillment of each other needs. The fundamental problem, dealt with is what drives or induces people to exploit their potential resources in the way they do in organizations? The issue of motivation and performance are they positively related? By focusing on the financial aspect of motivation problem like bonus system, allowances perks, salaries, etc. By paying attention to the financial aspect of motivation, I intend to probe in to the role this aspect has on enhancing employee’s performance. I believe, financial motivation has become the most concern in today’s organization, and tying to Mallow’s basic needs, non-financial aspect only comes in when financial motivation has failed. Though in some situation, it is being operated side by side. But as a research topic for my thesis I will employ the financial aspects of motivation used by the agents of organization in enhancing their employee’s performance and the extent to which non-financial aspects of motivation turn to enhance employee’s performance. To evaluate the methods of performance motivation in organization in organizing some motivational factors like satisfies and dissatisfies will be used to evaluate how employees motivation is enhanced other than financial aspects of motivation. Problem Statements As a research question, the research seeks to answer what role motivation plays in enhancing performance in organization. This will be possible through analysis of information gathered from students. Hence this thesis is mainly quantitative. * Objectives In trying to find an answer(s) to the research question and on the basis of the above background discussion and research question, the main purposes developed for this thesis is to assess the factors t hat motivate employees to perform best at work. This is done by carrying out a survey in which respondents responding to a survey, ranked the least two most important factor on a list of ten factors, and how these factors influence them. * Limitations and Demarcations The limitation is being considered in relation to the natural explanation to which the researcher has limited the study and the active choices to limit the study area that is financial motivation as a determinant of performance. The study is limited to existing theories and models, and their influence and limitation on performance enhancement. By considering the financial and non-financial aspect of motivation on employees’ performance relating to existing theories and models, I intend to mark a demarcation for the study. Here I have considered limitation in line with the research objective that is the study is limited. I believe that with the changing nature of the work force, recent trends in development, information and technology, the issue of financial motivation becomes consent on one of the most important assets in an organization. A lot has been said on the outside forces of an organization. This research considers the inside forces as a starting point. Ideally, a study of all the explanatory variables will be considered appropriate in order to capture the interactive influences of other variables and thus be able to come up with holistic and generally more acceptable results, of financial motivation and performance. * Definitions Motivation: Motivation by definition refers to what activates, directs human behavior and how this behavior is sustained to achieve a particular goal. Also it can be defined as the set of processes that arouse, direct and maintain human behavior towards attaining some goals. Jones (1955) argues that† Motivation is concerned with how behavior gets started, is energized, is sustained, is directed, and is stopped and what kind of subjective reaction is present in the organization while all this is going on. † Role of financial motivation: The potential role of money is – (1) Conditioned reinforce (2) An incentive which is capable of satisfying needs (3) An anxiety reducer (4) Serves to erase feelings of dissatisfaction Employee satisfaction: This refers to the positive or negative aspects of employee’s altitude towards their jobs or some features of the job. Organizational Goals: A concept, which refers to the focus of attention and decision-making among employees of a sub-unit. Organizing: This involves the complete understanding of the goals of organization, the necessity of proper co-ordination, and the environmental factors that influence the goals and employees within the organization. Employee attitudes: Mental state of readiness for motive arousal.

Positive Feedbacks in the Economy

Positive Feedbacks in the Economy A new economic theory elucidates mechanisms whereby small chance events early in the history of an industry or technology can tilt the competitive balance by W. Brian Arthur onventional economic theory is built on the assumption of diminishing renrrns. Economic actions engender a negative feedback that leads to a predictable equilibrium for prices and market shares. Such feedback tends to stabilize the economy because any major changes will be offset by the very reactions they generate. The high oil prices of the 1970's ncouraged energy conservation and increased oil exploration, precipitat- ing a predictable drop in prices by the early 1980's. According to conventional theory the equilibrium marks the ‘best† outcome possible under the cir- natives will be the â€Å"best† one. Furthermore, once random economic events select a particular path the choice may become locked-in regardless of the advantages of the alternatives. If one pr oduct or nationin a competitive [email  protected] gets ahead by â€Å"chance,† it tends to stay ahead and even increase its lead. hedictable, shared markets are no longer guaranteed.During the past few years I and other economic theorists at Stanford University, the Santa Fe Insurute in New Mexico and elsewhere have been developing a view of the economy based Such a market is initially unstable. Both systems were introduced at about the same time and so began with roughly equal market shares; those shares fluctuated early on because of external circumstance, â€Å"luclC' and corporate maneuvering. Increasing returns on early gains eventually tilted the competition toward VHS: it accumulated enough of an advantage to take vhrually the entire VCR market.Yet it would have been impossible at the outset of the competition to say which system would win, which of the two possible equilibria would be se- Such an agreeable picture often on positive feedback. Increasing-returns eco nomics has roots that go back 70 years or more, but its application to the economy as a whole is does violence to reality. In many parts largely new. The theory has strong lected. Furthermore, if the claim that Beta was technically superior is true, then the market's choice did not represent the best economic outcome. Conventional economic theory of- stabilizing forces arallels with modern nonlinear physics (instead of the pre-ZOth-century physical models that underlie conventional economics), it requires new and challenging mathematical techniques between two technologies or products performing the same function. An example is the competition between water and coal to generate electricity. As cumstances: the most efficient use and allocation of resources. of the economy, appear not to operate. Instead positive feedback magnifies the effects of small economic shifts; the economic models that describe such effects differ vastly from the conventional ones.Diminishing returns imply a s ingle equilibrium point for the economy, but positive feedback-increasing returns-makes for many possible equilibrium points. There is no guarantee that the particular economic outcome selected from among the many alterW. BRIANARTHUR is Morrison hofes- sor of Population Studies and Economics at Stanford University. He obtained his Ph. D. from the University of California, Berkeley, in 1973 and holds graduate degtees in operations research, economics and mathematics. Until recently Arthur was on leave at the Santa Fe Institute, a research insdrute dedicated o the srudy of complex systems. There he directed a team of economists, physicists, biologists and others investigating behavior of the economy as an evolving, complex system. and it appears lTth† history of the videocassette I recorder furnishes a simple exI ample of positive feedbaik. the vcR market started out with two competing formats selling at about the same price: VIIS and Beta. Ehch format could realize increasing r erurns as its market share increased: large numbers of VHS recorders would encourage video outlets to stock more prerecorded tapes in VHS format, thereby enhancing the value of owning a WIS ecorder and leading more people to buy one. (The same would, of course, be true for Beta-format players. ) Ir this way, a small gain in market share would improve the competitive position of one system and help it further increase its lead. 92 Scrrmrrc AMERTcAN to be the appropri- ate theory for understanding modern high-technology economies. February 1990 fers a different view of competition hydroelectric plants take more of the market, engineers must exploit more costly dam sites, thereby increasing the chance that a coal-fired plant will be cheaper. As coal plants take more f the market, they bid up the price of coal (or trigger the imposition of costly pollution controls) and so tip the balance toward hydropower. The two technologies end up sharing the market in a predictable proportion that best e>'qploits the potentials of each, in contrast to what happened to the two video-recorder systems. The evolution of the VCR market would not have surprised the great Victorian economist Alfred Marshall, one of the founders of today's conventional economics. In his 1890 Pr'nciples of Economics, he noted that if firms' production costs fall as their arket shares increase, a firm that simply by good fortune gained a high proportion of the market early on would be able to best its rivals; ‘uhatever firm first gets a good start† would corner the market. Marshall did not follow up this observatior however, and theoretical economics has until recently largely ignored it. Marshall did not believe that increasing returns applied everywhere; agriculture and mining-the mainstays of the economies of his timewere subject to diminishing returns caused by limited amounts of fertile land or high-quality ore deposits.Manufacturing, on the other hand, eqioyed increasing returns becau se large plants allowed improved organization Modern economists do not see economies of scale as a reliable source of increasing returns. Sometimes large plants have proved more economical; often they have not. would update Marshall's insight by observing that the parts of the economy that are resource-based (agficulI ture, bulk-goods production, mining) are still for the most part subject to diminishing returns. Here conventional economics rightly holds sway.The parts of the economy that are knowledge-based, on the other hand, are largely subject to increasing retums. Products such as computers, pharmaceuticals, missiles, aircraft, automobiles, software, telecommunications equipment or fiber optics are complicated to design and to manufacture. They require large initial investments in research, development and tooling, but once sales begin, incremental production is relatively cheap. A new airframe or aircraft engine, for example, typically costs between $2 and $3 billion to design , develop, certify and put into production.Each copy thereafter costs perhaps $50 to $100 million. As more units are built, unit costs continue to fall and profits increase. Increased production brings additional benefits: producing more units means gaining more experience in the uct so as to be able to exchange information with those using it already. manufacturing process and achieving greater understanding of how to produce additional units even more mechanisms that did not involve technology. Orthodox economists avoided increasing returns for deeper reasons. cheaply. Moreover, er